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valve wave 125

Review Post valve wave 125

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Valve Cover untuk Wave 125 Jika berminat nak order boleh pm saya terus (Y)

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Review Q&A valve wave 125

How long would a 125cc motorcycle last for city use?

As long as you like. In my experience of running a 125 for mixed city commuting there are a few mods to aid longevity. The chain if it IS chain drive, is generally a cheap 420 type. I found a kit to convert my 420 to a 428 which is a much heavier duty chain, DiD ‘X’ ring chains are available in 428 so I got one of those. RESULT no chain adjustment needed from then on. Rear shocks… I bought cheap rubber bellows or gaiters to cover the exposed piston rod …Stops the shocks from wearing due to dust and grit killing the seals Fronts were already shrouded on my bike Engine. Easy, replace the recommended oil with Mobil 1 fully synthetic 0w-40 and change at the intervals recommended… Essentially zero engine wear from that point on including valve lash, timing chain or anything else. Job done… I have over 35,000 miles on my 2010 fuel injected Wave and apart from rusty wheel rims, it runs exactly as well as the day it was bought. There are Honda C50’s, C70’s and C90’s out there, mostly in sheds these days, with 25 years of daily commuting on the bores. I bought a ’65 C100 (50cc four stroke SuperCub) in 2005 which had been in daily use as a to and from work city commuter from 1965 to 1989… 25 years…It had had three re-bores due to the crap oils available then, but was otherwise entirely original. The actual mileage was so great the metal brake pedal hatched gripping protrusions had been worn to the point the hatching was worn smooth…Says it all really….

What is better, an underbone motorcycle or a scooter?

In my opinion, in terms of ride quality , handling, ease of maintenance and cost of running, the underbone motorcycle wins hands down. A scooter has the engine and transmission moving with the rear wheel, which adds a huge amount of unsprung weight to the wheel. As a consequence the rear springs and compression damping needs to be stiff to control the movement . Those stiff springs transmit road vibration to the rider and passenger. I recently sold my scooter, a honda SH300. I still own my Innoa (Wave) 125i underbone. An underbone motorcycle has the engine affixed to the frame and the rear suspension moves independently The Wave is a budget machine, the SH300 a fully specc’d luxury bike with all the frills, ABS, linked brakes, remote seat lock…All the good toys. the Wave has….er… A speedometer ….and a fuel gauge… The SH had really hard rear suspension, even with the shocks at their lowest setting. It was so bad, it would have injured my partner who already has a bad back if we hit a pothole or something. Honda went to great pains to make the SH, which is the best selling scooter in Italy, handle as well as they could with those limitations in mind. It is fast, with its 28bhp four valve twin cam single, it has 16 inch wheels, it has high quality suspension… and so on. And it did handle as good if not better than any other scooter. For a scooter, it was very good… But it didn’t handle a typical English back road as well as the little Wave does, the SH being knocked off line by road imperfections at the rear… And the Wave, while being a surprisingly nimble and well balanced little bike, doesn’t handle or deal with bumps as well as my ;78 500cc Yamaha…. or for that matter, many other motorcycles. Costs are also high for a scooter. the variomatic transmission needs replacing after about 30,000 miles, the tyres are expensive and the economy was mediocre Apart from oil changes, the Wave has needed no parts at all in 30,000 miles, (although I have changed the air filter it didn’t need it). It is quite capable of going TWICE as far as the Scooter on a litre of petrol, and capable of bettering the 125 version of the SH easily too. So basically, the best up-market luxury scooter Honda can make revised constantly throughout its run, rides far worse and costs far more to run than the cheapest utility underbone bike Honda makes, designed in 2000 and based on a 1959 concept.

What was your scariest "something's not right" moment?

My open water diving encounter with a 4 metre Great White Shark The location was on a private property called Butler’s Beach on the southern end of the Yorke Peninsula, South Australia. The property owners permit bush camping on their 4km waterfront of rugged and wild coastline that faces the open southern ocean. Butler’s Beach is a Mecca for land based rock and beach fisherman, and it’s just a fantastic place to get back to nature. My great friend and dive buddy that day was Tom, and we were diving for what many consider the finest seafood delicacy in the world, the Southern Rock Lobster or Australian Crayfish. These salt water crayfish can grow in excess of 5kg, and their firm, sweet white flesh is exquisite. Tom and I were diving at Coffin Beach, a small, easily accessible cove that minimised the distance we had to carry our heavy dive gear from our parked car down cliffs or sand dunes to the water. The cove gets its name from a rectangular basalt shelf that runs parallel to the shore and which is exposed at low tide, which you can see in the following aerial photo. This photo shows a relatively calm day, when you consider the next stop south from this point is Antarctica, with perhaps a 0.3m swell running. There was a 1 to 1.5m sea when Tom and I entered the water this day, and visibility was down to no more than 8 metres. Not that this concerned us. We werent there for the view, we were on a mission to catch dinner. Crayfish hunting involves a lot of time at the bottom of large rocks, lifting sea grasses and other growth out of the way to peer into crevices, where, if you are lucky, this is what you see peering back at you. We’ve donned our scuba gear and waved to our wives sunbathing on the beach, promising to return in an hour or so with that night’s dinner. Tom and I headed under and made our way to deeper water. We started hunting for crayfish when we were in about 10 metres of water, which placed us about 125 metres from shore. There is an art to catching these critters. We would use a spring loaded wire loop or lassoo, or grab them on their carrapice with our gloved hands. In both cases though you have to do so swiftly, and without first touching either of their long, sensitive feelers that protrude from their heads. If touched on their feelers the cray will instantaneously retreat into its crevice and wedge and lock its muscular tail between the crevice faces so hard it makes them impossible to extract. You tend to do this in a head down, bum up upside down position as most of the crevices are found where large boulders sit on the seafloor. To add some challenge to all of that the 1.5 m surface waves were causing a current swell even at a depth of 10 metres, and we were constantly being moved to and fro with the wave generated movements of the water All of this means that you remain very focussed on the next crevice or ledge right in front of you. Combine that with low visibility and a dive buddy who never took much notice of his partner and their whereabouts, and it was inevitable that within a very short space of time, Tom was nowhere in sight. I kept an eye out for him and continued cray hunting for 3 or 4 minutes, then spent a minute swimming a large circle of the area where we were last together at a depth of about 8 metres, but I didn’t see him. I’ve then followed the usual protocol of slowly surfacing and hoped that Tom would remember his training and be disciplined and do the same. I’ve surfaced, filled my buoyancy vest with the maximum amount of air it can hold to lift me higher in the water and to see above the wave tops, and looked around for Tom. After about 5 minutes of bobbing around on the surface in essentially an upright “standing” posture, with perhaps the water line being at chest level and my legs hanging straight down, and without seeing Tom, something made me look down in the water, despite not being able to see the bottom or any structure. Feeling compelled to look anyway, I floated horizontally and put my mask underwater. In doing so, I immediately noticed a shadow moving perpendicular to me, about 10 metres away, which I partially dismissed as the play of the sun on a passing wave. Fortunately I didn’t dismiss it altogether and tracked my vision in the direction of movement and saw the shadow again, but this time marginally closer, and with some greater definition. I kept twisting in the water to follow the shadow which moved just in and out of visible range, and after making what would have been a complete 360 degree spin that took some 30 seconds, I had seen enough to positively identify the silhouette that was circling me. I was being stalked by a Great White Shark that I afterwards estimated to be 3.5 to 4 metres long, but looked to be the size of a London Bus at the time. At that moment I thought my life was about to end. I was petrified, and I expected to be charged at and killed by this monster any second. I wasn't going to be a victim if I could help it though. I have immediately depressed the air dump valve on my vest and held the exhaust as high above my head as I could, pulled the secondary air valve on my vest and breathed out every last bit of air in my lungs humanly possible, and I plummeted (though it felt like it took forever) to the sea floor 10 metres below. On my descent I intently watched my nemesis circling me only 6 or 7 metres away as he intently watched me. Once my flipper touched bottom I scrambled as quickly as I could to get my back to a large rock. Hyperventilating from fear and holding my lungs empty for so long, with my back covered by the rock and the attack angles narrowed down, I removed my sheathed abalone knife and held that in my outstretched left hand and grabbed my shortened hand spear and pointed that out with my right hand, creating a steel barrier between me and my circling foe. Bobbing around on the surface, I was dead meat. Now at least I had shifted the odds in my favour and I felt like I had a fighting chance. I sat there back to the rock making myself look as unappetizing as possible and watched the Great White now circling mid water and at slightly closer range over the next 5 minutes. Whilst it was to the sides or in front of me and I could see it I felt in control. When it circled behind my protective boulder I just kept thinking it was going to launch from behind and above, and I wouldn’t know until it was too late. For those 5 minutes its circling was incessant, and it had eyes for only me. Then, with the shark just returning into my vision on my right, from out of the gloom on my left appears Tom. Tom sees me and he waves and excitably points to his catch bag containing a crayfish. After processing my steel weaponed pose and my consecutive hand signals of a clenched fist (DANGER) followed by my hand held vertically with all fingers stretched upwards (SHARK) he sooned wiped his silly grin off his face and joined me with his back to the boulder and his knife and spear in hand. The shark initially retreated with Tom's arrival on the scene, and Tom was just a bit too nonchalant for my liking, but very quickly the need to feed had this apex predator back in view, and Tom responded accordingly. He too was shitting himself. Using hand signals and body language I said to Tom that the motherfuckin monster wasn't going to leave us alone, and that we could stay put until we ran out of air (probably in 30 or so minutes) or we could get the fuck out of Dodge. We agreed that we were going to do an underwater sprint to shore, staying close to the terrain, again minimising the available angles of attack. I thought about leaving the cray as a diversion, but figured that a 1kg crayfish would be no more than a toothpick for the monster, and knew it was fixated on me for that days menu. So, we prepared ourselves to run the equivalent of the 4 minute mile underwater, and when the circling Great White was at the point of its travel furthest out to sea we exploded away from our protective rock, kicking our legs furiously whilst holding our arms to our sides to remain streamlined, yet with our hands positioned so that our spears and knives presented some sort of defence from above. We didn’t stop. We didn’t look around. We didn't look up. We just kicked as hard as we could and stuck next to each other like we were joined at the hips, because that’s what mates do. Before long the lactic acid buildup in my thighs and calves became excruciating, and for a moment I wondered how much more pain this man eater could possibly inflict compared to what I was experiencing. Not much surely. Just then I noticed that we were on the shoreline upslope, so we knew we were close, but this created another problem. As the waves above us came up from behind us we accelerated, but as they passed over we were coming to a relative stop and with a couple of larger waves it felt like the wave’s backwash was actually moving us backwards, despite still kicking with all our remaining strength. We didn't know where the predator was, and the image of it being right on our heels and the backwash delivering us straight into its gaping jaws filled my thoughts. We both responded to this spontaneously and without any communication to each other, and inflated our vests and swam to the surface, somehow finding some reserves left in the tank, and paddled our legs, and now also our arms, like there literally would be no tomorrow unless we caught that next wave. We felt the next wave begin to rise us higher in the water column, and we felt our forward speed increasing, and paddled even harder if that was even possible, and then a moment of sheer relief and joy washed through me, and with Tom still at my side, we body surfed the wave. Scuba equipped body surfing may be unique, but not a sport I expect to take off. The tide was at mid height, and the wave we had hitched a ride on broke right on top of the coffin structure near the shore, dumping us in the deeper, calmer water on the shore side of the rock shelf. We had made it. We were both going to live. The Great White maneater was far too large to follow us over, though we didn’t hang around in the relative calm and swam the next 10 metres to the shoreline. We both then half crawled out of the water, still side by side, and in sheer and absolute exhaustion, we both collapsed face down in the sand. Our wives, who were oblivious to what had occurred, were further up the beach sunbaking, and took their sweet ol’ time coming over to us. Tom’s wife came over first and asked if we were having cray for dinner, but didn’t get any response as we were far too busy gulping in air to possibly breath and speak at the same time. She came over to me and said “oh my god Alan, why are you covered in blood”. I still couldn't speak, but Tom responded in a hoarse whisper “Shark”. We still couldn’t move. Sensing that we were in trouble she and my wife quickly unlatched both our tanks, regulators and dive vests, took off our masks and fins, got us drinks and sat us up. We tried to explain that we had to escape a shark, but the girls kept asking where I was attacked, as, unbeknownst to me, my face was covered in blood. I asked for my mask, and there was blood all over it. I had to reassure them, mostly with hand signals and grunts, that I was OK and hadn't been attacked by the shark. After I had recovered enough to be able to catch my breath, and my thoughts, this entire adventure become clear to me. About a week and a half before our camping trip I had had the flu, and had suffered a secondary sinus infection. During the dive I found myself clearing my mask more than normal, thinking to myself that I probably had a kink in the face seal or the head strap that was letting water in, when in fact what I had been clearing from inside my mask was blood, from either a burst vein in my sinus or just an old fashioned blood nose. Scuba divers don’t normally feature at the top of the list of what’s for dinner today in Great White’s thinking, as steel, rubber and neoprene don’t get the olfactory juices flowing for them. However, a bit of steel and neoprene with a garnish of fresh blood no doubt would get their belly rumbling, and given their prey’s almost comical and pedestrian like aquatic skills, even if didn’t find dinner all that tasty, it wasn't going to have to invest a lot of energy catching it. This is why you are advised not to go diving during or straight after having an upper respiratory infection I guess. For quite a few moments that day I didn’t expect to be having another meal, only being one. The fresh Southern Rock Lobster, simply boiled, with a seafood sauce on the side, that we had for dinner that night was the finest meal I have ever had.

What questions related to mechanical engineering can I expect in an interview with a thermal power plant?

Following are mostly asked questions in Interview with Thermal Power Plant: 1. What is primary separator and secondary separator in boiler drum? 2. What is induction motor principle? 3. Simple boiler internal diagram? 4. What is mean by HP and LP dozing? 5. Draw condenser to boiler drum scheme path? 6. Draw switch yard to line single line diagram? 7. What is mean by attemperation location and where are its sources for super heater and re heater? 8. What is the percentage of nitrogen and oxygen in air? 9. What is mean by LDC and SLDC and what they do? 10.What are the sources for PRDS? (AST header source) 11. What is the AST output? 12.What are the cooling tower types? 13.What is mean by dry ash and wet ash? (dry ash – bottom ash in ESP) 14. Explain the dry ash to silo path? 15. Explain heat triangle? 16. What is the value of drum pH level? 17. What is mean by CBD and EBD? 18. What is salient pole and non-salient pole? 19. Why hydrogen is used in generator instead of air? 20. Explain GT protection 21. LA, WT, CT, CVT, PT – draw symbols? 22. Explain RH protection? 23. What are the protection of boilers? 24. What is mean by proximity analysis and ultimate analysis? 25. Why deareator and what is its function? 26. Condensate extraction pump works at what pressure? 27. why speed is maintained at 3000 RPM? 28. what are the different types of governor? 29. different types of compressors in power plant? 30. different types of Air used in power plant? 31. from mill house fuel is transported to boiler? 32. classification of turbine? 33. different types of soot blowers used in thermal power plant? 34. whether stator conductor is hollow? 35. why CDP drain is open? 36. what is mean by RO? (reverse osmosis) 37. explain mill protection? 38. what are the types of valves? 39. safety valve and EPRV valve? 40. explain air conditioning cycle? 41. draw DM plant scheme? 42. SWS parameters? 43. what is mean by scanner air fan and explain? 44. explain EOP? 45. explain JOP, AOP, Injector? 46. where is MOP located? 47. what is mean by drag link chain conveyor? 48.what is fastener’s types. 49.explain ESP principle? 50.explain ACW uses? 51. what is mean by Drip and Drain - draw the scheme? 52.what is normal drain, emergency drain and alternate drain? 53.seal trough uses? 54.what is the percentage of ash in coal. 55.working principle of chimney? 56.what is mean by acid dew temperature? 57.explain natural draft cooling? 58.explain LP/HP bypass? 59.what is mean by purging/ 60.what is the cost of LDO and HFO ? 61. relation of pressure , volume in fluid mechanics? 62.what is the nozzle principle? 63.method of ash disposal in silo. 64.what is the heat remove in the condenser/ 65.commissioning of boiler? 66.what is the sequence of oil burner? 67.atomization- why we need to do that? 68.what is on-load tube cleaning? 69.what is the purpose of condenser? 70.what is long retractable soot blower and why it is used? 71. what is mean by hydro test? 72.What is mean by MFT? 73.what are the turbine protections? 74.what are the boiler protections? 75.what is DG? (diesel generator) 76.what is GIS? (Gas insulated substation) 77.What are the types of breaker? 78.what is the principle of ejectors? 79.explain bottom ash handling? 80.how many safety valves are present? 81. what is buccholz relay? 82.what is governing? 83.what are the types of Air used in power plant? 84.what are the types of extinguisher and where it is used? 85.explain ESP principle? 86.what is induction motor principle? 87.what are the various level of voltage in power plant? 88.what is the steam source for GSH. 89.deluge valve in the conveyor 90.method of extinguishing fire inside the mill? (mill inert steam) 91. what is drift in cooling tower? 92.what happens if stator conductors gets punctured? 93.what is mean by GDS? (gas distribution screen) 94.explain centrifugal and centripetal forces? 95.what is scoop in hydro coupling? 96.centrifuge ? how does it work? And where does the water enters inside it? 97.what is ETP. 98.draw PT and CUT symbols. 99.LHS in coal handling system?(hint – conveyor safety) 100.what is corona? And where it is used? 101.ESP collecting and emitting electrodes terminals? 102.types of voltages in power plant? 103.PRDS system? 104.difference between metal detector and magnetic separator difference? 105.how fly ash gets collected in the ESP? 106.explain transformer cooling 107.protection of power plant?( class A, class B) 108.what are the furnace losses? 109.how many relays are there in MFT? 110.when MFT will get activated? 111.explain nozzle principle? 112.what is acid cleaning? 113.what is CEP? 114.what is the purpose of deareator? 115.explain Fahrenheit? 116.what is the purpose of ID fan? 117.what are the DC power voltage level? 118.what are the DC equipments in power plant? 119.what is the purpose of cooling tower? 120.what is steam blow out? 121.what is soot & how it is formed and methods to reduce soot? 122.what is soot blowers. What is the operating conditions of soot blowers? 123.direction of rotation of tri-sector RAPH with respect to flue gas duct? 124.how many boiler safety valves. What are the operating condition of boiler safety valves. 125.what is JOP, MOP? 126.what is LP dozing and HP dozing? 127.where is ammonium dozed in boiler? 128.what is drip and drain? 129.what is static and dynamic excitation? 130.what is CRO? 131.PLCC why it is used? 132.HRH,CRH which tubes are bigger in size? 133.what is seal air fan? 134.Types of fire extinguishers? 135.whare are the solid, liquid and gaseous pollutants. 136.how is bottom ash is disposed? 137.why chimney is at that particular height? 138.different between RO and DM plant? 139.what is EOP? 140.explain hydrogen evacuation? Explain the percentage ratio? 141.what is soot blowing? 142.what is the moisture content in coal? 143.what are the types of mills? 144.what is dew point? 145.how is PF coal is taken to the furnace and at what temperature? 146.protections in generator? 147.when MFT initiates? 148.chemical dozing in boiler drum? Why? 149.what is deluge valve? How it works? 150.how to detect condenser tube leakage? 151.explain modified rankine cycle? 152.explain difference between fly ash and bottom ash? 153.purpose of scanner air fan? 154.usage if FD fan? 155.draw the flue gas path? 156.what are the various voltage levels? 157.what is attemperation. 158.BFP stages? 159.how fly ash is disposed? 160.types of draught? 161.types of fans? 162.drift losses? 163. ID fan usage? 164.generator output voltage level. 165.what is the kg of coal require to generate one unit? 166.calorific valve of coal. 167.difference between wet bulb and dry bulb temperature? 168.explain air ventilation? 169.LPT diaphragm? 170.what is 3T.? 171.what is scaling? 172.what is SAT, UAT, ST? 173.what is the unit of sound? 174.explain cooling tower principle? 175.what lighting arrestor? And where it is used? 176.what is ETP? 177.what is isotopes? 178.what is centrifuge? 179.what is service air? 180.baring gear in LMW? 181.what is the pressure of seal oil? 182.difference between instrument air and service air? 183.how moisture is removed in instrument air? 184.what is centrifuge and why it is called centrifuge? 185.CPU – condensate polishing unit? 186.excitation system? 187.HP/LP bypass – scheme? 188.why deaerator is in high level and why booster pump is used? 189.needle valve, where it is used? 190.difference between globe valve and gate valve? 191.how butterfly valves work? 192.where CBD and EBD valves are located? 193.what is priming in pumps? 194.deaerator pegging steam? 195.why NRV is used after pump, why can’t be used before pump? 196.what is air preheater? 197.how bore well pump sucks water from below 100 feet? 198.whether main ejector is in service with the circuit? 199.AST used in what all places? 200.boiler – purpose, components and combustion 201.soot blower types? 202.excitation static type, dynamic type block diagram 203.what is grid? 204.fuel calorific valve? Ash and moisture content? Indian coal and imported coal? 205.capacity of power in tamil nadu? 206.what is SCR? 207.gland steam condenser – principle of steam collecting 208.transformer rating? 209.what is diaphragm? 210.what is AVR and how it is controlled? 211.SCR thyristor didoe symbol purpose? 212.what is firing angle? 213.what is mill inert steam/ 214.PLF and availability factor? 215.DM plant scheme? 216.where conduction, convection and radiation takes place in boiler? 217.boiler safety valve location? 218.sequence of safety valve operation? 219.centrifuge working? 220.cycles of concentration in cooling tower? 221.thermodynamic first law? 222. Rankine cycle and modified rankine cycle difference? 223.Difference between entropy and enthalpy? 224.turbo separator process? 225. GT protection? 226. Location in boiler where flue gas temperature is high? 227.sequence of oil gun operation? 228.what is global warming? 229.what is acid rain? 230.what is green house effect? 231.what are the emergency equipment to be running during black out? 232.bunker to boiler scheme? 233.carbon content and volatile content? 234.what is HGI? 235.atomization in LDO and HFO? 236.bowl bill and beater wheel mill? 237.air compressor? 238.emulsifier? 239.FCNRV? 240.steam cycle and condensate cycle? 241.different types of water in plant? 242.sealing system? 243.red colour is more prevalent than other colours? Why? 244.corona in ESP? 245.what is drip , drain and alternate drain? 246.abrasive, corrosion and erosion? 247.seal oil system vacuum pump location? 248.why recirculation is taken for CEP after GSC. 249.motoring of generator? 250.temperature of primary air? 251.stress relieving? 252.state henry law? 253.chlorination in power plant? 254.coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation? 255.isometric? 256.what is eddy current? 257.lamination in core of transformer? 258.seal labyrinth? 259.what is shrouds? 260.FD fan and ID fan – axial and radial fan? 261.burner tilting? 262. What is PA fan and purpose and what happens if PA fan trips? 263.what is vector group? 264.absolute pressure and gauge pressure? 265.what is CT and PT? 266.what is steam blow out and alkali boil out? 267.material used in SH, RH water wall? 268.what is EDTA? 269.what is passivation? 270.electrical energy calculation? 271.what are the permissive to start a mill? 272.what are the purging permissive? 273.what are the boiler losses? 274.why unburnt carbon deposit in the bottom? 275.what is BMS? 276.scheme condenser to deaerator? 277.what is black out and emergency run? 278.effect of cooling water puncture? 279.methods for ash disposal? 280.explain rankine cycle? 281.what is seal trough? 282.boiler expansion? 283.economizer recirculation 284.CEP will create vacuum or not? 285.what is hydrogen gas cooler? 286.what is CEP drain? 287.why 3 safety valve in HRH & drum? 288.why re heater is necessary? 289.carbon content in different types of coal? 290.boiler efficiency? 291.generator synchronizing parameters to be matched? 292.explain turbine trips? 293.what is heat rate? 294.what are the boiler protection. 295.what is GIS? Its purpose? 296.what is SF6 circuit breaker? 297.scheme of FD fan to chimney? 298.unit of capacitance, inductance and frequency? 299.explain CT, CVT, PT? 300.difference between static and dynamic head? 301.turbo super visionary? 302.what is pumped storage plant? 303.difference between hydro power plant and TPS? 304.hydrogen is stored in or not stored after removing it from generator? 305.losses in TPS? 306.why ID fan capacity is more? 307.flue gas outlet at RAPH , why oxygen is more, what is the reason? 308.cooling of circulating water? 309.have u seen MOCB near cooling tower? 310.why we use SF6 as medium why can’t we use nitrogen? 311.what is the advantage of CFBC. 312.steam blow out disturbance factor? 313.COC ? how much to be maintained? 314.WBT ,DBT difference between those in cooling tower? 315.uses of cooling medium in transformer? 316.how water is used to cool the generator and why water is not getting short circuited inside generator? 317.why water is not used in transformer for cooling purpose? 318.what happens when scanner fan air trips? 319.what are the primary and secondary fuel in boiler? 320.What is PA and seal air? 321.what is transformer breather? 322.what is wave trap? 323.water critical pressure? 324.why ESP collecting electrode is +ve? 325.what is subzero cooling? 326.mill reject? 327.3 element control? 328.what heat is rejected in the condense? Why sensible heat is not rejected in condenser?

How do you 'drive' a submarine?

“,How do you 'drive' a submarine?” It’s actually pretty easy, after you get a little bit of experience. It’s been the same since the ,Skipjack, class SSN in the ’60s (until now, withe the ,Virginia ,class, where EVERYTHING is different!). There are two “drivers” operating the controls. They sit in nice padded seats (with seat belts) with a control yoke. It has a wheel and a stick between your knees. (looks like the pilot controls on an airliner). The man on the left control the angle of the stern planes at the back of the sub (like the “elevator” on an airplane), to control the boat’s “bubble” (pitch angle up or down). The one on the right is the Helmsman/Planesman. His yoke controls the angle of the fairwater planes (the ‘wings” on the tower you see in pictures), or bow planes at the front of the sub (depends on class of boat. Bow planes or fairwater planes, never both) which control the sub’s depth. He turns the wheel left or right to control the boat’s course (direction you’re traveling to). He also controls the “engine order telegraph” to tell the engineers in the Engine Room the ordered speed of the screw (thus the boat’s speed). Ship Control Party. Messenger (with headphones and microphone — probably Battlestations), COW, DOOW, Planesman and Helmsman) That’s just to “drive” the boat flat and level. It takes a lot more people to do all of the jobs to make that happen. We’ll start at the top, and work down. (I’ll say “he” because women are a recent additions to the submarine force. Besides, I’m a “sexist pig” from the ’70s LOL) Officer Of the Deck (OOD). He’s the senior man on watch, directly responsible to the Captain for everything done on the boat. In the ship’s log (written record of operations) he has the “Deck” (Responsible for everything) and the “Conn” (Responsible for ordering the boat’s Course, Speed and Depth). It there’s an assistant on watch (the Junior OOD), he has the conn. Whenever a change is made of the Deck and the Conn, an announcement is loudly made, so everyone knows who is allowed to give orders. “This is Lieutenant Smith, and I have the Deck and the Conn!” The Quartermaster (QMOW) records that in the ship’s log. “Lt. Smith has the deck and the conn.” The only one who can over-ride the OOD is the Captain. If he does, the OOD loudly announces “The Captain has the Conn!” Whenever an announcement like that is made, two watchstanders verbally acknowledge it, as an order, the QMOW and the Helmsman “Lieutenant Smith has the conn, aye!” That way, the OOD knows that everyone is aware he has control. His station is on the periscope stand, between the periscopes. When the boat is at periscope depth, he’s the one looking out the periscope onto the real world on the surface. Between local sunset and sunrise, he always wears a red mask, so if the boat suddenly has to go to periscope depth or surface, he has good night vision. Some officers prefer to wear a patch on their periscope eye instead. When the boat is planning on going to periscope depth at night, the white lights in the Control Room are extinguished, and the red lights are turned on (Called “rigging the Control Room for red”). When the boat surfaces, another officer goes to the Bridge, and when he gets there, relieves the OOD in the Control Room. There must ALWAYS be someone in charge at all times, to give proper orders, ESPECIALLY on the surface, where you could get run over by other ships. Diving Officer Of the Watch (DOOW). He’s responsible to ensure the boat maintains ordered depth and angle (as received from the OOD) and correct trim (neutral buoyancy and straight and level). He gives orders to the planesmen and COW. He sits on a stool just behind and above the two planesmen. He doesn’t have a seatbelt, because he doesn’t physically control anything (unless one of the planesman passes out LOL). Diving Officer and Cheif are in Khakis. The other two are Helmsman (close) and planesmen (far) Chief Of the Watch (COW). He is administratively in charge all enlisted crewmen forward of engineering (and thus, the boat), makes all 1MC (ship-wide PA system) announcements, operates all ship-wide alarms (General Alarm, Collision Alarm, Diving Alarm), both on orders from the OOD, and operates the Ballast Control Panel (Trim/Drain System to move trimming water between various trim tanks and to/from the sea, Hovering System to hover the boat, raise/lower all masts and antennas (except the periscopes) open/shut main ballast tank vents (While diving the boat), blowing main ballast tanks (to surface the boat) and operating the snorkel mast head-valve (valve at the top of the snorkel mast that automatically opens and closes to keep the ocean from coming down this big hollow tube into the boat due to wave action). Those orders come from the DOOW. He sits in a chair with a seatbelt. Helmsman/Planesman/Messenger (MOOW). I described the first two. The Messenger is a gofer for the OOD and COW. He’s the one who wakes-up anyone asleep that wanted to be wakened at a certain time (nobody has an alarm clock in berthing. You don’t want to wake everyone else. I did that once (just once), and I’m lucky nobody destroyed my clock! The Messenger rotates with the other two, every hour. When the boat surfaces, the Messenger is the lookout on the bridge, and the stern planesman becomes the messenger (you can’t control depth on the surface). Other watch standers in or around the Control Room who receive orders from the OOD include the Quartermaster Of the Watch (QMOW), responsible for navigation and plotting ship’s position, Fire Controlman Of the Watch (FTOW) responsible for tracking all vessels that have been detected, and calculating Fire Control solutions to shoot tactical weapons, Radio Supervisor (in the Radio Room), Sonar Supervisor (in Sonar), Electronics Technician Of the Watch (ETOW), operates ESM (Electronic Surveliance Measures) to detect and track other ship Radars when the sub is at periscope depth or on the surface, and Auxiliaryman Of the Watch (AOW), who “rigs” various spaces for events, such as snorkeling, ventilating and emergencies, and operates the Emergency Diesel when snorkeling, and Torpedoman Of the Watch (TMOW), who operates the torpedo tubes. On SSBNs, there is also MCC (Missile Control Center) that prepares and controls strategic missiles, and Launcher, who shoots the missiles. Missile Control Center and Launcher. Standing officer is the Weapons Officer. He’s holding the launch trigger. The coiled cord goes into a safe that only he has the combination for. There are two triggers. The black one he is holding is for drills and exams, and is incapable of launching anything. The red one is the live trigger, in a safe only he has a combination for.. The missile won’t launch unless he’s squeezing the trigger. One squeeze, one missile. That’s part of the fail-safe system for nuclear weapon security. OK, those are the “Forward Pukes” (Anybody who isn’t an engineer). What about the guys who push the boat through the water? There’s one officer in charge, responsible to the OOD. Engineering Officer Of the Watch (EOOW). He’s in charge of all engineering functions, reactor, engines, auxiliary equipment. His watch station is in the Maneuvering Room (control station for the reactor plant (nuclear reactor), electrical plant (generators, ship’s battery, emergency diesel generator, and the motor/generator sets that interconnect various electrical systems) and steam plant (all steam systems, including the steam generators, steam turbines for propulsion, and turbine-generators that make ekectricity). He sits on a stool behind the three plant operators. Whenever the OOD verbally contacts the Manuevering Room on the 7MS PA system, the EOOW responds, and relays any special orders (such as a specific engine RPM, specific speed, to cavitate, etc.). Reactor Plant Operator. Operates the panel to control the reactor, keeping it running safely (being “critical”) and within proper operating parameters. Unlike civian powerplants, Navy reactor power levels are constantly changing as the boat changes speed. Electrical Plant Operator. Adjusts the generator systems for various evolutions, such as charging the ship’s battery or keeping electrical things running when the reactor isn’t (using the battery or diesel) Throttleman. Operates the steam plant, mostly adjusting the main engine throttles for the ordered speed. He operates the engineroom end of the Engine Order Telegraph (the other end is operated by the Helmsman), and electrical device with a round display, two needles (ordered”bell” and answered “bell”). It’s called a “bell” because everytime either arrow moves, a bell rings (“ding!”). The orders are Stop, Ahead 1/3, Ahead 2/3, Ahead standard, Ahead Full, Ahead Flank (each Ahead position changes engine RPM 20%), Back 1/3, Back 2/3 Back Full and Back Emergency (Changes are at 25% intervals). To do it, he has two concentric chrome wheels. The larger one is for Ahead, and the smaller one is for Back. All three operators sit on tall stools. The senior enlisted in Engineering is the Engine Room Supervisor, who keeps everything running smoothly. There are several other watch standers in the Engine Room and second Auxiliary Room, monitoring thinks like the fresh water stills and evaporators (making potable, distilled and pure water), air conditioning plant (keeping equipment and BTW people, cool, lube oil plant (lubricate engines and turbines), hydraulic oil plant (supply hydraulic power to valves and actuators) and atmospheric regeneration (Oxygen Generator, CO2 scrubber, CO/H burner) and various other sundry things. Multiply all of those by three, and you see why there’s 125 or so people in the crew. Virginia, SSNs are TOTALLY different! From what I’ve seen in YouTube videos, they have consolidated the DOOW, COW, Helm and Planes into two people, ,Pilot, and ,Copilot,. The periscope has been replaced by a photonics mast, and Sonar has moved from a separate sonar shack, to one side of the Control Center. <shudder>!!!. Everything is automated and replaced by flat-screen displays. I’m told they have eliminated Torpedomen, Radiomen and Data Systems Techs. Virginia, class pilot and copilot. Wheels and yokes have been replaced with joysticks. The BCP has been replaced with flat panels. If they did that up forward, I can’t imagine what they have done in Engineering. Maybe they eliminated everybody and put an Engineering console in the Control Center, like Star Trek!

What is the loudest sound in the universe?

Sounds at 90-95 decibels are where humans start to experience hearing loss from sustained exposure. We start to experience pain at 125 decibels and ,louder,. 140 decibels and up can quickly cause irreversible ear damage. One of the loudest sounds ever recorded was NASA's ,Saturn V rocket,, which registered 204 decibels. One of my favorite book extracts: The six main propellant valves in each engine opened in a mechanical ballet, and a Niagara of liquid oxygen and kerosene began cascading downward in pipes the size of sewer mains. The turbopumps were now turning at 5,000 rpm, and like a whirlpool draining the sea, they sucked down the propellants with stupendous ferocity and pushed them through the thousands of pinholes in the injector plates. Between them, the five engines were now vaporizing fifteen tons of liquid a second. "...two, one, zero, all engines running..." If every river and stream in the country were harnessed by hydroelectric dams, they would have generated less than half the power now pouring from the main engines and blasting through the flame trench like a geyser from hell. As the roiling smoke surged out on either side for a third of a mile, hydraulic rams collapsed the linkages of the four hammerhead clamps at the base of the rocket, and they sprang away in split-second unison. "...Lift-off. We have a lift-off, thirty-two minutes past the hour..." From four miles away, the scene was mystifying, surreal. The rocket moved, it seemed to levitate, inching upward on a tower of incandescent fire--but there was no sound, only the unsuspecting gulls wheeling in the silent sky. And then the surface of the lagoon in front of the press grandstand suddenly rippled as the shock wave flashed across and thudded into the chests of the spectators and shook the ground beneath their feet and filled their skulls with a crackling thunder that overwhelmed the atmosphere itself. ,To the million souls who watched dumbstruck as the great machine ascended, there could not have been the slightest doubt that this thing was leaving the planet.

How does a train horn work?

Train horns are operated by compressed air, typically 125-140 ,psi, (8.6-9.6 ,bar,), and fed from a locomotive main air ,reservoir,. When the engineer opens the horn valve, air flows through a supply line into the power chamber at the base of the horn ,(diagram, right),. It passes through a narrow opening between a nozzle and a circular ,diaphragm, in the power chamber, then out through the flaring horn bell. The flow of air past the diaphragm causes it to vibrate or ,oscillate, against the nozzle, producing sound. Keep in mind that when an ,air horn, is not operating and has no ,fluid, pressure flowing through it, the interior of the power chamber housing is completely air tight, as the ,diaphragm, disc creates a full air tight seal against the nozzle surface. Referring to the cut-away blueprint diagram of a conventional air horn power chamber on the right, when a constant stream of pressurized fluid enters through the small inlet at the bottom, the pressure in the power chamber increases as it is air tight internally. The pressure continues rising in Chamber 'A' until the air pressure overcomes the spring tension of the Diaphragm. Once this occurs, the Diaphragm is deflected back, and in such, is no longer sealed against the nozzle. From this, the interior of the power chamber is now no longer air tight, as the Diaphragm has deflected off the nozzle. As a result, the pressurized ,fluid, now escapes out of the horn bell. Because the pressurized ,Fluid, exits through the horn bell at a much faster rate than the fluid enters into the power chamber through the base air inlet, the air pressure in the power chamber drops rapidly. As such, the Diaphragm re-seats itself against the nozzle surface. This entire process is one cycle of the Diaphragm operating. In reality, this operation process occurs much faster in accordance to the frequency produced by the horn. The constant back and forth ,Oscillation, of the Diaphragm creates sound waves, which are then amplified by the large flared horn bell. The length, thickness and diameter of the horn bell contribute to the frequency of the note produced by the horn.

What was the scariest experience you ever had?

My open water diving encounter with a 4 metre Great White Shark The location was on a private property called Butler’s Beach on the southern end of the Yorke Pennisula, South Australia. The property owners permit bush camping on their 4km waterfront of rugged and wild coastline that faces the open southern ocean. Butler’s Beach is a Mecca for land based rock and beach fisherman, and it’s just a fantastic place to get back to nature. My great friend and dive buddy that day was Tom, and we were diving for what many consider the finest seafood delicacy in the world, the Southern Rock Lobster or Australian Crayfish. These salt water crayfish can grow in excess of 5kg, and their firm, sweet white flesh is exquisite. Tom and I were diving at Coffin Beach, a small, easily accessible cove that minimised the distance we had to carry our heavy dive gear from our parked car down cliffs or sand dunes to the water. The cove gets its name from a rectangular basalt shelf that runs parallel to the shore and which is exposed at low tide, which you can see in the following aerial photo. This photo shows a relatively calm day, when you consider the next stop south from this point is Antarctica, with perhaps a 0.3m swell running. There was a 1 to 1.5m sea when Tom and I entered the water this day, and visibility was down to no more than 8 metres. Not that this concerned us. We werent there for the view, we were on a mission to catch dinner. Crayfish hunting involves a lot of time at the bottom of large rocks, lifting sea grasses and other growth out of the way to peer into crevices, where, if you are lucky, this is what you see peering back at you. We’ve donned our scuba gear and waved to our wives sunbathing on the beach, promising to return in an hour or so with that night’s dinner. Tom and I headed under and made our way to deeper water. We started hunting for crayfish when we were in about 10 metres of water, which placed us about 125 metres from shore. There is an art to catching these critters. We would use a spring loaded wire loop or lassoo, or grab them on their carrapice with our gloved hands. In both cases though you have to do so swiftly, and without first touching either of their long, sensitive feelers that protrude from their heads. If touched on their feelers the cray will instantaneously retreat into its crevice and wedge and lock its muscular tail between the crevice faces so hard it makes them impossible to extract. You tend to do this in a head down, bum up upside down position as most of the crevices are found where large boulders sit on the seafloor. To add some challenge to all of that the 1.5 m surface waves were causing a current swell even at a depth of 10 metres, and we were constantly being moved to and fro with the wave generated movements of the water All of this means that you remain very focussed on the next crevice or ledge right in front of you. Combine that with low visibility and a dive buddy who never took much notice of his partner and their whereabouts, and it was inevitable that within a very short space of time, Tom was nowhere in sight. I kept an eye out for him and continued cray hunting for 3 or 4 minutes, then spent a minute swimming a large circle of the area where we were last together at a depth of about 8 metres, but I didn’t see him. I’ve then followed the usual protocol of slowly surfacing and hoped that Tom would remember his training and be disciplined and do the same. I’ve surfaced, filled my buoyancy vest with the maximum amount of air it can hold to lift me higher in the water and to see above the wave tops, and looked around for Tom. After about 5 minutes of bobbing around on the surface in essentially an upright “standing” posture, with perhaps the water line being at chest level and my legs hanging straight down, and without seeing Tom, something made me look down in the water, despite not being able to see the bottom or any structure. Feeling compelled to look anyway, I floated horizontally and put my mask underwater. In doing so, I immediately noticed a shadow moving perpendicular to me, about 10 metres away, which I partially dismissed as the play of the sun on a passing wave. Fortunately I didn’t dismiss it altogether and tracked my vision in the direction of movement and saw the shadow again, but this time marginally closer, and with some greater definition. I kept twisting in the water to follow the shadow which moved just in and out of visible range, and after making what would have been a complete 360 degree spin that took some 30 seconds, I had seen enough to positively identify the silhouette that was circling me. I was being stalked by a Great White Shark that I afterwards estimated to be 3.5 to 4 metres long, but looked to be the size of a London Bus at the time. At that moment I thought my life was about to end. I was petrified, and I expected to be charged at and killed by this monster any second. I wasn't going to be a victim if I could help it though. have immediately depressed the air dump valve on my vest and held the exhaust as high above my head as I could, pulled the secondary air valve on my vest and breathed out every last bit of air in my lungs humanly possible, and I plummeted (though it felt like it took forever) to the sea floor 10 metres below. On my descent I intently watched my nemesis circling me only 6 or 7 metres away as he intently watched me. Once my flipper touched bottom I scrambled as quickly as I could to get my back to a large rock. Hyperventilating from fear and holding my lungs empty for so long, with my back covered by the rock and the attack angles narrowed down, I removed my sheathed abalone knife and held that in my outstretched left hand and grabbed my shortened hand spear and pointed that out with my right hand, creating a steel barrier between me and my circling foe. Bobbing around on the surface, I was dead meat. Now at least I had shifted the odds in my favour and I felt like I had a fighting chance. I sat there back to the rock making myself look as unappetizing as possible and watched the Great White now circling mid water and at slightly closer range over the next 5 minutes. Whilst it was to the sides or in front of me and I could see it I felt in control. When it circled behind my protective boulder I just kept thinking it was going to launch from behind and above, and I wouldn’t know until it was too late. For those 5 minutes its circling was incessant, and it had eyes for only me. Then, with the shark just returning into my vision on my right, from out of the gloom on my left appears Tom. Tom sees me and he waves and excitably points to his catch bag containing a crayfish. After processing my steel weaponed pose and my consecutive hand signals of a clenched fist (DANGER) followed by my hand held vertically with all fingers stretched upwards (SHARK) he sooned wiped his silly grin off his face and joined me with his back to the boulder and his knife and spear in hand. The shark initially retreated with Tom's arrival on the scene, and Tom was just a bit too nonchalant for my liking, but very quickly the need to feed had this apex predator back in view, and Tom responded accordingly. He too was shitting himself. Using hand signals and body language I said to Tom that the motherfuckin monster wasn't going to leave us alone, and that we could stay put until we ran out of air (probably in 30 or so minutes) or we could get the fuck out of Dodge. We agreed that we were going to do an underwater sprint to shore, staying close to the terrain, again minimising the available angles of attack. I thought about leaving the cray as a diversion, but figured that a 1kg crayfish would be no more than a toothpick for the monster, and knew it was fixated on me for that days menu. So, we prepared ourselves to run the equivalent of the 4 minute mile underwater, and when the circling Great White was at the point of its travel furthest out to sea we exploded away from our protective rock, kicking our legs furiously whilst holding our arms to our sides to remain streamlined, yet with our hands positioned so that our spears and knives presented some sort of defence from above. We didn’t stop. We didn’t look around. We didn't look up. We just kicked as hard as we could and stuck next to each other like we were joined at the hips, because that’s what mates do. Before long the lactic acid buildup in my thighs and calves became excruciating, and for a moment I wondered how much more pain this man eater could possibly inflict compared to what I was experiencing. Not much surely. Just then I noticed that we were on the shoreline upslope, so we knew we were close, but this created another problem. As the waves above us came up from behind us we accelerated, but as they passed over we were coming to a relative stop and with a couple of larger waves it felt like the wave’s backwash was actually moving us backwards, despite still kicking with all our remaining strength. We didn't know where the predator was, and the image of it being right on our heels and the backwash delivering us straight into its gaping jaws filled my thoughts. We both responded to this spontaneously and without any communication to each other, and inflated our vests and swam to the surface, somehow finding some reserves left in the tank, and paddled our legs, and now also our arms, like there literally would be no tomorrow unless we caught that next wave. We felt the next wave begin to rise us higher in the water column, and we felt our forward speed increasing, and paddled even harder if that was even possible, and then a moment of sheer relief and joy washed through me, and with Tom still at my side, we body surfed the wave. Scuba equipped body surfing may be unique, but not a sport I expect to take off. The tide was at mid height, and the wave we had hitched a ride on broke right on top of the coffin structure near the shore, dumping us in the deeper, calmer water on the shore side of the rock shelf. We had made it. We were both going to live. The Great White maneater was far too large to follow us over, though we didn’t hang around in the relative calm and swam the next 10 metres to the shoreline. We both then half crawled out of the water, still side by side, and in sheer and absolute exhaustion, we both collapsed face down in the sand. Our wives, who were oblivious to what had occurred, were further up the beach sunbaking, and took their sweet ol’ time coming over to us. Tom’s wife came over first and asked if we were having cray for dinner, but didn’t get any response as we were far too busy gulping in air to possibly breath and speak at the same time. She came over to me and said “oh my god Alan, why are you covered in blood”. I still couldn't speak, but Tom responded in a hoarse whisper “Shark”. We still couldn’t move. Sensing that we were in trouble she and my wife quickly unlatched both our tanks, regulators and dive vests, took off our masks and fins, got us drinks and sat us up. We tried to explain that we had to escape a shark, but the girls kept asking where I was attacked, as, unbeknownst to me, my face was covered in blood. I asked for my mask, and there was blood all over it. I had to reassure them, mostly with hand signals and grunts, that I was OK and hadn't been attacked by the shark. After I had recovered enough to be able to catch my breath, and my thoughts, this entire adventure become clear to me. About a week and a half before our camping trip I had had the flu, and had suffered a secondary sinus infection. During the dive I found myself clearing my mask more than normal, thinking to myself that I probably had a kink in the face seal or the head strap that was letting water in, when in fact what I had been clearing from inside my mask was blood, from either a burst vein in my sinus or just an old fashioned blood nose. Scuba divers don’t normally feature at the top of the list of what’s for dinner today in Great White’s thinking, as steel, rubber and neoprene don’t get the olfactory juices flowing for them. However, a bit of steel and neoprene with a garnish of fresh blood no doubt would get their belly rumbling, and given their prey’s almost comical and pedestrian like aquatic skills, even if didn’t find dinner all that tasty, it wasn't going to have to invest a lot of energy catching it. This is why you are advised not to go diving during or straight after having an upper respiratory infection I guess. For quite a few moments that day I didn’t expect to be having another meal, only being one. The fresh Southern Rock Lobster, simply boiled, with a seafood sauce on the side, that we had for dinner that night was the finest meal I have ever had.

What are the waves around the atoms in that IBM atom animation?

Bessel functions Specifically, ,Bessel Function of the First Kind,, which are non singular at the origin and sometimes called ,cylindrical harmonics,, because they arise in solutions to wave equations when cylindrical symmetry exists. That is in contrast to ,Spherical harmonics,, which require spherical rotational symmetry. The electronic ,wave functions ,on the surface of the metal take the form of Bessel function around an isolated atom, because that configuration yields approximate cylindrical symmetry. You can create Bessel functions on a surface of water by biking to your local pond on a calm day and dropping in a stone. A famous paper by the IBM group, led by ,Don Eigler - IBM Research,, is ,Confinement of Electrons to Quantum Corrals on a Metal Surface,. The image above is taken from that experiment, where you can see Bessel functions in the quantum corral, with slightly different boundary conditions because the surface electrons in that experiment were confined at a boundary. The way that the IBM group measures the electronic wavefunctions is with a ,Scanning tunneling microscope,, which is closely related to, but distinct from, ,Atomic force microscopy,. You can read about its development here ,Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture: Scanning Tunneling Microscopy From Birth to Adolescence,. The movie appears to be just stop animation of the following process :: 2 Researchers Spell 'I.B.M.,' Atom by Atom The movie is not just for show. The group in ,San Jose, California, U.S.A., is attempting to build ,Atomic-scale magnetic memory,, which would be the realization of Richard Feynman's thought experiment in ,There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom,, reprinted below. ---- Plenty of Room at the Bottom Richard P. Feynman December 1959 I imagine experimental physicists must often look with envy at men like Kamerlingh Onnes, who discovered a field like low temperature, which seems to be bottomless and in which one can go down and down. Such a man is then a leader and has some temporary monopoly in a scientific adventure. Percy Bridgman, in designing a way to obtain higher pressures, opened up another new field and was able to move into it and to lead us all along. The development of ever higher vacuum was a continuing development of the same kind. I would like to describe a field, in which little has been done, but in which an enormous amount can be done in principle. This field is not quite the same as the others in that it will not tell us much of fundamental physics (in the sense of, ``What are the strange particles?'') but it is more like solid-state physics in the sense that it might tell us much of great interest about the strange phenomena that occur in complex situations. Furthermore, a point that is most important is that it would have an enormous number of technical applications. What I want to talk about is the problem of manipulating and controlling things on a small scale. As soon as I mention this, people tell me about miniaturization, and how far it has progressed today. They tell me about electric motors that are the size of the nail on your small finger. And there is a device on the market, they tell me, by which you can write the Lord's Prayer on the head of a pin. But that's nothing; that's the most primitive, halting step in the direction I intend to discuss. It is a staggeringly small world that is below. In the year 2000, when they look back at this age, they will wonder why it was not until the year 1960 that anybody began seriously to move in this direction. Why cannot we write the entire 24 volumes of the Encyclopedia Brittanica on the head of a pin? Let's see what would be involved. The head of a pin is a sixteenth of an inch across. If you magnify it by 25,000 diameters, the area of the head of the pin is then equal to the area of all the pages of the Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Therefore, all it is necessary to do is to reduce in size all the writing in the Encyclopaedia by 25,000 times. Is that possible? The resolving power of the eye is about 1/120 of an inch---that is roughly the diameter of one of the little dots on the fine half-tone reproductions in the Encyclopaedia. This, when you demagnify it by 25,000 times, is still 80 angstroms in diameter---32 atoms across, in an ordinary metal. In other words, one of those dots still would contain in its area 1,000 atoms. So, each dot can easily be adjusted in size as required by the photoengraving, and there is no question that there is enough room on the head of a pin to put all of the Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Furthermore, it can be read if it is so written. Let's imagine that it is written in raised letters of metal; that is, where the black is in the Encyclopedia, we have raised letters of metal that are actually 1/25,000 of their ordinary size. How would we read it? If we had something written in such a way, we could read it using techniques in common use today. (They will undoubtedly find a better way when we do actually have it written, but to make my point conservatively I shall just take techniques we know today.) We would press the metal into a plastic material and make a mold of it, then peel the plastic off very carefully, evaporate silica into the plastic to get a very thin film, then shadow it by evaporating gold at an angle against the silica so that all the little letters will appear clearly, dissolve the plastic away from the silica film, and then look through it with an electron microscope! There is no question that if the thing were reduced by 25,000 times in the form of raised letters on the pin, it would be easy for us to read it today. Furthermore; there is no question that we would find it easy to make copies of the master; we would just need to press the same metal plate again into plastic and we would have another copy. How do we write small? The next question is: How do we write it? We have no standard technique to do this now. But let me argue that it is not as difficult as it first appears to be. We can reverse the lenses of the electron microscope in order to demagnify as well as magnify. A source of ions, sent through the microscope lenses in reverse, could be focused to a very small spot. We could write with that spot like we write in a TV cathode ray oscilloscope, by going across in lines, and having an adjustment which determines the amount of material which is going to be deposited as we scan in lines. This method might be very slow because of space charge limitations. There will be more rapid methods. We could first make, perhaps by some photo process, a screen which has holes in it in the form of the letters. Then we would strike an arc behind the holes and draw metallic ions through the holes; then we could again use our system of lenses and make a small image in the form of ions, which would deposit the metal on the pin. A simpler way might be this (though I am not sure it would work): We take light and, through an optical microscope running backwards, we focus it onto a very small photoelectric screen. Then electrons come away from the screen where the light is shining. These electrons are focused down in size by the electron microscope lenses to impinge directly upon the surface of the metal. Will such a beam etch away the metal if it is run long enough? I don't know. If it doesn't work for a metal surface, it must be possible to find some surface with which to coat the original pin so that, where the electrons bombard, a change is made which we could recognize later. There is no intensity problem in these devices---not what you are used to in magnification, where you have to take a few electrons and spread them over a bigger and bigger screen; it is just the opposite. The light which we get from a page is concentrated onto a very small area so it is very intense. The few electrons which come from the photoelectric screen are demagnified down to a very tiny area so that, again, they are very intense. I don't know why this hasn't been done yet! That's the Encyclopaedia Brittanica on the head of a pin, but let's consider all the books in the world. The Library of Congress has approximately 9 million volumes; the British Museum Library has 5 million volumes; there are also 5 million volumes in the National Library in France. Undoubtedly there are duplications, so let us say that there are some 24 million volumes of interest in the world. What would happen if I print all this down at the scale we have been discussing? How much space would it take? It would take, of course, the area of about a million pinheads because, instead of there being just the 24 volumes of the Encyclopaedia, there are 24 million volumes. The million pinheads can be put in a square of a thousand pins on a side, or an area of about 3 square yards. That is to say, the silica replica with the paper-thin backing of plastic, with which we have made the copies, with all this information, is on an area of approximately the size of 35 pages of the Encyclopaedia. That is about half as many pages as there are in this magazine. All of the information which all of mankind has every recorded in books can be carried around in a pamphlet in your hand---and not written in code, but a simple reproduction of the original pictures, engravings, and everything else on a small scale without loss of resolution. What would our librarian at Caltech say, as she runs all over from one building to another, if I tell her that, ten years from now, all of the information that she is struggling to keep track of--- 120,000 volumes, stacked from the floor to the ceiling, drawers full of cards, storage rooms full of the older books---can be kept on just one library card! When the University of Brazil, for example, finds that their library is burned, we can send them a copy of every book in our library by striking off a copy from the master plate in a few hours and mailing it in an envelope no bigger or heavier than any other ordinary air mail letter. Now, the name of this talk is ``There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom''---not just ``There is Room at the Bottom.'' What I have demonstrated is that there is room---that you can decrease the size of things in a practical way. I now want to show that there is plenty of room. I will not now discuss how we are going to do it, but only what is possible in principle---in other words, what is possible according to the laws of physics. I am not inventing anti-gravity, which is possible someday only if the laws are not what we think. I am telling you what could be done if the laws are what we think; we are not doing it simply because we haven't yet gotten around to it. Information on a small scale Suppose that, instead of trying to reproduce the pictures and all the information directly in its present form, we write only the information content in a code of dots and dashes, or something like that, to represent the various letters. Each letter represents six or seven ``bits'' of information; that is, you need only about six or seven dots or dashes for each letter. Now, instead of writing everything, as I did before, on the surface of the head of a pin, I am going to use the interior of the material as well. Let us represent a dot by a small spot of one metal, the next dash, by an adjacent spot of another metal, and so on. Suppose, to be conservative, that a bit of information is going to require a little cube of atoms 5 times 5 times 5---that is 125 atoms. Perhaps we need a hundred and some odd atoms to make sure that the information is not lost through diffusion, or through some other process. I have estimated how many letters there are in the Encyclopaedia, and I have assumed that each of my 24 million books is as big as an Encyclopaedia volume, and have calculated, then, how many bits of information there are (10^15). For each bit I allow 100 atoms. And it turns out that all of the information that man has carefully accumulated in all the books in the world can be written in this form in a cube of material one two-hundredth of an inch wide--- which is the barest piece of dust that can be made out by the human eye. So there is plenty of room at the bottom! Don't tell me about microfilm! This fact---that enormous amounts of information can be carried in an exceedingly small space---is, of course, well known to the biologists, and resolves the mystery which existed before we understood all this clearly, of how it could be that, in the tiniest cell, all of the information for the organization of a complex creature such as ourselves can be stored. All this information---whether we have brown eyes, or whether we think at all, or that in the embryo the jawbone should first develop with a little hole in the side so that later a nerve can grow through it---all this information is contained in a very tiny fraction of the cell in the form of long-chain DNA molecules in which approximately 50 atoms are used for one bit of information about the cell. Better electron microscopes If I have written in a code, with 5 times 5 times 5 atoms to a bit, the question is: How could I read it today? The electron microscope is not quite good enough, with the greatest care and effort, it can only resolve about 10 angstroms. I would like to try and impress upon you while I am talking about all of these things on a small scale, the importance of improving the electron microscope by a hundred times. It is not impossible; it is not against the laws of diffraction of the electron. The wave length of the electron in such a microscope is only 1/20 of an angstrom. So it should be possible to see the individual atoms. What good would it be to see individual atoms distinctly? We have friends in other fields---in biology, for instance. We physicists often look at them and say, ``You know the reason you fellows are making so little progress?'' (Actually I don't know any field where they are making more rapid progress than they are in biology today.) ``You should use more mathematics, like we do.'' They could answer us---but they're polite, so I'll answer for them: ``What you should do in order for us to make more rapid progress is to make the electron microscope 100 times better.'' What are the most central and fundamental problems of biology today? They are questions like: What is the sequence of bases in the DNA? What happens when you have a mutation? How is the base order in the DNA connected to the order of amino acids in the protein? What is the structure of the RNA; is it single-chain or double-chain, and how is it related in its order of bases to the DNA? What is the organization of the microsomes? How are proteins synthesized? Where does the RNA go? How does it sit? Where do the proteins sit? Where do the amino acids go in? In photosynthesis, where is the chlorophyll; how is it arranged; where are the carotenoids involved in this thing? What is the system of the conversion of light into chemical energy? It is very easy to answer many of these fundamental biological questions; you just look at the thing! You will see the order of bases in the chain; you will see the structure of the microsome. Unfortunately, the present microscope sees at a scale which is just a bit too crude. Make the microscope one hundred times more powerful, and many problems of biology would be made very much easier. I exaggerate, of course, but the biologists would surely be very thankful to you---and they would prefer that to the criticism that they should use more mathematics. The theory of chemical processes today is based on theoretical physics. In this sense, physics supplies the foundation of chemistry. But chemistry also has analysis. If you have a strange substance and you want to know what it is, you go through a long and complicated process of chemical analysis. You can analyze almost anything today, so I am a little late with my idea. But if the physicists wanted to, they could also dig under the chemists in the problem of chemical analysis. It would be very easy to make an analysis of any complicated chemical substance; all one would have to do would be to look at it and see where the atoms are. The only trouble is that the electron microscope is one hundred times too poor. (Later, I would like to ask the question: Can the physicists do something about the third problem of chemistry---namely, synthesis? Is there a physical way to synthesize any chemical substance? The reason the electron microscope is so poor is that the f- value of the lenses is only 1 part to 1,000; you don't have a big enough numerical aperture. And I know that there are theorems which prove that it is impossible, with axially symmetrical stationary field lenses, to produce an f-value any bigger than so and so; and therefore the resolving power at the present time is at its theoretical maximum. But in every theorem there are assumptions. Why must the field be symmetrical? I put this out as a challenge: Is there no way to make the electron microscope more powerful? The marvelous biological system The biological example of writing information on a small scale has inspired me to think of something that should be possible. Biology is not simply writing information; it is doing something about it. A biological system can be exceedingly small. Many of the cells are very tiny, but they are very active; they manufacture various substances; they walk around; they wiggle; and they do all kinds of marvelous things---all on a very small scale. Also, they store information. Consider the possibility that we too can make a thing very small which does what we want---that we can manufacture an object that maneuvers at that level! There may even be an economic point to this business of making things very small. Let me remind you of some of the problems of computing machines. In computers we have to store an enormous amount of information. The kind of writing that I was mentioning before, in which I had everything down as a distribution of metal, is permanent. Much more interesting to a computer is a way of writing, erasing, and writing something else. (This is usually because we don't want to waste the material on which we have just written. Yet if we could write it in a very small space, it wouldn't make any difference; it could just be thrown away after it was read. It doesn't cost very much for the material). Miniaturizing the computer I don't know how to do this on a small scale in a practical way, but I do know that computing machines are very large; they fill rooms. Why can't we make them very small, make them of little wires, little elements---and by little, I mean little. For instance, the wires should be 10 or 100 atoms in diameter, and the circuits should be a few thousand angstroms across. Everybody who has analyzed the logical theory of computers has come to the conclusion that the possibilities of computers are very interesting---if they could be made to be more complicated by several orders of magnitude. If they had millions of times as many elements, they could make judgments. They would have time to calculate what is the best way to make the calculation that they are about to make. They could select the method of analysis which, from their experience, is better than the one that we would give to them. And in many other ways, they would have new qualitative features. If I look at your face I immediately recognize that I have seen it before. (Actually, my friends will say I have chosen an unfortunate example here for the subject of this illustration. At least I recognize that it is a man and not an apple.) Yet there is no machine which, with that speed, can take a picture of a face and say even that it is a man; and much less that it is the same man that you showed it before---unless it is exactly the same picture. If the face is changed; if I am closer to the face; if I am further from the face; if the light changes---I recognize it anyway. Now, this little computer I carry in my head is easily able to do that. The computers that we build are not able to do that. The number of elements in this bone box of mine are enormously greater than the number of elements in our ``wonderful'' computers. But our mechanical computers are too big; the elements in this box are microscopic. I want to make some that are submicroscopic. If we wanted to make a computer that had all these marvelous extra qualitative abilities, we would have to make it, perhaps, the size of the Pentagon. This has several disadvantages. First, it requires too much material; there may not be enough germanium in the world for all the transistors which would have to be put into this enormous thing. There is also the problem of heat generation and power consumption; TVA would be needed to run the computer. But an even more practical difficulty is that the computer would be limited to a certain speed. Because of its large size, there is finite time required to get the information from one place to another. The information cannot go any faster than the speed of light---so, ultimately, when our computers get faster and faster and more and more elaborate, we will have to make them smaller and smaller. But there is plenty of room to make them smaller. There is nothing that I can see in the physical laws that says the computer elements cannot be made enormously smaller than they are now. In fact, there may be certain advantages. Miniaturization by evaporation How can we make such a device? What kind of manufacturing processes would we use? One possibility we might consider, since we have talked about writing by putting atoms down in a certain arrangement, would be to evaporate the material, then evaporate the insulator next to it. Then, for the next layer, evaporate another position of a wire, another insulator, and so on. So, you simply evaporate until you have a block of stuff which has the elements--- coils and condensers, transistors and so on---of exceedingly fine dimensions. But I would like to discuss, just for amusement, that there are other possibilities. Why can't we manufacture these small computers somewhat like we manufacture the big ones? Why can't we drill holes, cut things, solder things, stamp things out, mold different shapes all at an infinitesimal level? What are the limitations as to how small a thing has to be before you can no longer mold it? How many times when you are working on something frustratingly tiny like your wife's wrist watch, have you said to yourself, ``If I could only train an ant to do this!'' What I would like to suggest is the possibility of training an ant to train a mite to do this. What are the possibilities of small but movable machines? They may or may not be useful, but they surely would be fun to make. Consider any machine---for example, an automobile---and ask about the problems of making an infinitesimal machine like it. Suppose, in the particular design of the automobile, we need a certain precision of the parts; we need an accuracy, let's suppose, of 4/10,000 of an inch. If things are more inaccurate than that in the shape of the cylinder and so on, it isn't going to work very well. If I make the thing too small, I have to worry about the size of the atoms; I can't make a circle of ``balls'' so to speak, if the circle is too small. So, if I make the error, corresponding to 4/10,000 of an inch, correspond to an error of 10 atoms, it turns out that I can reduce the dimensions of an automobile 4,000 times, approximately---so that it is 1 mm. across. Obviously, if you redesign the car so that it would work with a much larger tolerance, which is not at all impossible, then you could make a much smaller device. It is interesting to consider what the problems are in such small machines. Firstly, with parts stressed to the same degree, the forces go as the area you are reducing, so that things like weight and inertia are of relatively no importance. The strength of material, in other words, is very much greater in proportion. The stresses and expansion of the flywheel from centrifugal force, for example, would be the same proportion only if the rotational speed is increased in the same proportion as we decrease the size. On the other hand, the metals that we use have a grain structure, and this would be very annoying at small scale because the material is not homogeneous. Plastics and glass and things of this amorphous nature are very much more homogeneous, and so we would have to make our machines out of such materials. There are problems associated with the electrical part of the system---with the copper wires and the magnetic parts. The magnetic properties on a very small scale are not the same as on a large scale; there is the ``domain'' problem involved. A big magnet made of millions of domains can only be made on a small scale with one domain. The electrical equipment won't simply be scaled down; it has to be redesigned. But I can see no reason why it can't be redesigned to work again. Problems of lubrication Lubrication involves some interesting points. The effective viscosity of oil would be higher and higher in proportion as we went down (and if we increase the speed as much as we can). If we don't increase the speed so much, and change from oil to kerosene or some other fluid, the problem is not so bad. But actually we may not have to lubricate at all! We have a lot of extra force. Let the bearings run dry; they won't run hot because the heat escapes away from such a small device very, very rapidly. This rapid heat loss would prevent the gasoline from exploding, so an internal combustion engine is impossible. Other chemical reactions, liberating energy when cold, can be used. Probably an external supply of electrical power would be most convenient for such small machines. What would be the utility of such machines? Who knows? Of course, a small automobile would only be useful for the mites to drive around in, and I suppose our Christian interests don't go that far. However, we did note the possibility of the manufacture of small elements for computers in completely automatic factories, containing lathes and other machine tools at the very small level. The small lathe would not have to be exactly like our big lathe. I leave to your imagination the improvement of the design to take full advantage of the properties of things on a small scale, and in such a way that the fully automatic aspect would be easiest to manage. A friend of mine (Albert R. Hibbs) suggests a very interesting possibility for relatively small machines. He says that, although it is a very wild idea, it would be interesting in surgery if you could swallow the surgeon. You put the mechanical surgeon inside the blood vessel and it goes into the heart and ``looks'' around. (Of course the information has to be fed out.) It finds out which valve is the faulty one and takes a little knife and slices it out. Other small machines might be permanently incorporated in the body to assist some inadequately-functioning organ. Now comes the interesting question: How do we make such a tiny mechanism? I leave that to you. However, let me suggest one weird possibility. You know, in the atomic energy plants they have materials and machines that they can't handle directly because they have become radioactive. To unscrew nuts and put on bolts and so on, they have a set of master and slave hands, so that by operating a set of levers here, you control the ``hands'' there, and can turn them this way and that so you can handle things quite nicely. Most of these devices are actually made rather simply, in that there is a particular cable, like a marionette string, that goes directly from the controls to the ``hands.'' But, of course, things also have been made using servo motors, so that the connection between the one thing and the other is electrical rather than mechanical. When you turn the levers, they turn a servo motor, and it changes the electrical currents in the wires, which repositions a motor at the other end. Now, I want to build much the same device---a master-slave system which operates electrically. But I want the slaves to be made especially carefully by modern large-scale machinists so that they are one-fourth the scale of the ``hands'' that you ordinarily maneuver. So you have a scheme by which you can do things at one- quarter scale anyway---the little servo motors with little hands play with little nuts and bolts; they drill little holes; they are four times smaller. Aha! So I manufacture a quarter-size lathe; I manufacture quarter-size tools; and I make, at the one-quarter scale, still another set of hands again relatively one-quarter size! This is one-sixteenth size, from my point of view. And after I finish doing this I wire directly from my large-scale system, through transformers perhaps, to the one-sixteenth-size servo motors. Thus I can now manipulate the one-sixteenth size hands. Well, you get the principle from there on. It is rather a difficult program, but it is a possibility. You might say that one can go much farther in one step than from one to four. Of course, this has all to be designed very carefully and it is not necessary simply to make it like hands. If you thought of it very carefully, you could probably arrive at a much better system for doing such things. If you work through a pantograph, even today, you can get much more than a factor of four in even one step. But you can't work directly through a pantograph which makes a smaller pantograph which then makes a smaller pantograph---because of the looseness of the holes and the irregularities of construction. The end of the pantograph wiggles with a relatively greater irregularity than the irregularity with which you move your hands. In going down this scale, I would find the end of the pantograph on the end of the pantograph on the end of the pantograph shaking so badly that it wasn't doing anything sensible at all. At each stage, it is necessary to improve the precision of the apparatus. If, for instance, having made a small lathe with a pantograph, we find its lead screw irregular---more irregular than the large-scale one---we could lap the lead screw against breakable nuts that you can reverse in the usual way back and forth until this lead screw is, at its scale, as accurate as our original lead screws, at our scale. We can make flats by rubbing unflat surfaces in triplicates together---in three pairs---and the flats then become flatter than the thing you started with. Thus, it is not impossible to improve precision on a small scale by the correct operations. So, when we build this stuff, it is necessary at each step to improve the accuracy of the equipment by working for awhile down there, making accurate lead screws, Johansen blocks, and all the other materials which we use in accurate machine work at the higher level. We have to stop at each level and manufacture all the stuff to go to the next level---a very long and very difficult program. Perhaps you can figure a better way than that to get down to small scale more rapidly. Yet, after all this, you have just got one little baby lathe four thousand times smaller than usual. But we were thinking of making an enormous computer, which we were going to build by drilling holes on this lathe to make little washers for the computer. How many washers can you manufacture on this one lathe? A hundred tiny hands When I make my first set of slave ``hands'' at one-fourth scale, I am going to make ten sets. I make ten sets of ``hands,'' and I wire them to my original levers so they each do exactly the same thing at the same time in parallel. Now, when I am making my new devices one-quarter again as small, I let each one manufacture ten copies, so that I would have a hundred ``hands'' at the 1/16th size. Where am I going to put the million lathes that I am going to have? Why, there is nothing to it; the volume is much less than that of even one full-scale lathe. For instance, if I made a billion little lathes, each 1/4000 of the scale of a regular lathe, there are plenty of materials and space available because in the billion little ones there is less than 2 percent of the materials in one big lathe. It doesn't cost anything for materials, you see. So I want to build a billion tiny factories, models of each other, which are manufacturing simultaneously, drilling holes, stamping parts, and so on. As we go down in size, there are a number of interesting problems that arise. All things do not simply scale down in proportion. There is the problem that materials stick together by the molecular (Van der Waals) attractions. It would be like this: After you have made a part and you unscrew the nut from a bolt, it isn't going to fall down because the gravity isn't appreciable; it would even be hard to get it off the bolt. It would be like those old movies of a man with his hands full of molasses, trying to get rid of a glass of water. There will be several problems of this nature that we will have to be ready to design for. Rearranging the atoms But I am not afraid to consider the final question as to whether, ultimately---in the great future---we can arrange the atoms the way we want; the very atoms, all the way down! What would happen if we could arrange the atoms one by one the way we want them (within reason, of course; you can't put them so that they are chemically unstable, for example). Up to now, we have been content to dig in the ground to find minerals. We heat them and we do things on a large scale with them, and we hope to get a pure substance with just so much impurity, and so on. But we must always accept some atomic arrangement that nature gives us. We haven't got anything, say, with a ``checkerboard'' arrangement, with the impurity atoms exactly arranged 1,000 angstroms apart, or in some other particular pattern. What could we do with layered structures with just the right layers? What would the properties of materials be if we could really arrange the atoms the way we want them? They would be very interesting to investigate theoretically. I can't see exactly what would happen, but I can hardly doubt that when we have some control of the arrangement of things on a small scale we will get an enormously greater range of possible properties that substances can have, and of different things that we can do. Consider, for example, a piece of material in which we make little coils and condensers (or their solid state analogs) 1,000 or 10,000 angstroms in a circuit, one right next to the other, over a large area, with little antennas sticking out at the other end---a whole series of circuits. Is it possible, for example, to emit light from a whole set of antennas, like we emit radio waves from an organized set of antennas to beam the radio programs to Europe? The same thing would be to beam the light out in a definite direction with very high intensity. (Perhaps such a beam is not very useful technically or economically.) I have thought about some of the problems of building electric circuits on a small scale, and the problem of resistance is serious. If you build a corresponding circuit on a small scale, its natural frequency goes up, since the wave length goes down as the scale; but the skin depth only decreases with the square root of the scale ratio, and so resistive problems are of increasing difficulty. Possibly we can beat resistance through the use of superconductivity if the frequency is not too high, or by other tricks. Atoms in a small world When we get to the very, very small world---say circuits of seven atoms---we have a lot of new things that would happen that represent completely new opportunities for design. Atoms on a small scale behave like nothing on a large scale, for they satisfy the laws of quantum mechanics. So, as we go down and fiddle around with the atoms down there, we are working with different laws, and we can expect to do different things. We can manufacture in different ways. We can use, not just circuits, but some system involving the quantized energy levels, or the interactions of quantized spins, etc. Another thing we will notice is that, if we go down far enough, all of our devices can be mass produced so that they are absolutely perfect copies of one another. We cannot build two large machines so that the dimensions are exactly the same. But if your machine is only 100 atoms high, you only have to get it correct to one-half of one percent to make sure the other machine is exactly the same size---namely, 100 atoms high! At the atomic level, we have new kinds of forces and new kinds of possibilities, new kinds of effects. The problems of manufacture and reproduction of materials will be quite different. I am, as I said, inspired by the biological phenomena in which chemical forces are used in repetitious fashion to produce all kinds of weird effects (one of which is the author). The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom. It is not an attempt to violate any laws; it is something, in principle, that can be done; but in practice, it has not been done because we are too big. Ultimately, we can do chemical synthesis. A chemist comes to us and says, ``Look, I want a molecule that has the atoms arranged thus and so; make me that molecule.'' The chemist does a mysterious thing when he wants to make a molecule. He sees that it has got that ring, so he mixes this and that, and he shakes it, and he fiddles around. And, at the end of a difficult process, he usually does succeed in synthesizing what he wants. By the time I get my devices working, so that we can do it by physics, he will have figured out how to synthesize absolutely anything, so that this will really be useless. But it is interesting that it would be, in principle, possible (I think) for a physicist to synthesize any chemical substance that the chemist writes down. Give the orders and the physicist synthesizes it. How? Put the atoms down where the chemist says, and so you make the substance. The problems of chemistry and biology can be greatly helped if our ability to see what we are doing, and to do things on an atomic level, is ultimately developed---a development which I think cannot be avoided. Now, you might say, ``Who should do this and why should they do it?'' Well, I pointed out a few of the economic applications, but I know that the reason that you would do it might be just for fun. But have some fun! Let's have a competition between laboratories. Let one laboratory make a tiny motor which it sends to another lab which sends it back with a thing that fits inside the shaft of the first motor. High school competition Just for the fun of it, and in order to get kids interested in this field, I would propose that someone who has some contact with the high schools think of making some kind of high school competition. After all, we haven't even started in this field, and even the kids can write smaller than has ever been written before. They could have competition in high schools. The Los Angeles high school could send a pin to the Venice high school on which it says, ``How's this?'' They get the pin back, and in the dot of the ``i'' it says, ``Not so hot.'' Perhaps this doesn't excite you to do it, and only economics will do so. Then I want to do something; but I can't do it at the present moment, because I haven't prepared the ground. It is my intention to offer a prize of $1,000 to the first guy who can take the information on the page of a book and put it on an area 1/25,000 smaller in linear scale in such manner that it can be read by an electron microscope. And I want to offer another prize---if I can figure out how to phrase it so that I don't get into a mess of arguments about definitions---of another $1,000 to the first guy who makes an operating electric motor---a rotating electric motor which can be controlled from the outside and, not counting the lead-in wires, is only 1/64 inch cube. I do not expect that such prizes will have to wait very long for claimants. A Boy And His Atom

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